Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people of similar competence to the producers of the work.

It constitutes a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field.

Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility.

In academia, scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper's .

Peer review can be categorized by the type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs, e.g., .

The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials, with an emphasis on solids.

The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the Enlightenment, when researchers began to use analytical thinking from chemistry, physics, and engineering to understand ancient, phenomenological observations in metallurgy and mineralogy.

Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering.

As such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields.

Beginning in the 1940s, materials science began to be more widely recognized as a specific and distinct field of science and engineering, and major technical universities around the world created dedicated schools of the study.

An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published.

Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny and discussion of research.

They are usually peer-reviewed or refereed.

Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research, review articles, and book reviews.

The purpose of an academic journal, according to the first editor of the world's oldest academic journal Henry Oldenburg, is to give researchers a venue to "impart their knowledge to one another, and contribute what they can to the Grand design of improving natural knowledge, and perfecting all Philosophical Arts, and Sciences.".

Academic publishing is the subfield of publishing which distributes academic research and scholarship.

Most academic work is published in academic journal article, book or thesis form.

The part of academic written output that is not formally published but merely printed up or posted on the Internet is often called "grey literature".

Most scientific and scholarly journals, and many academic and scholarly books, though not all, are based on some form of peer review or editorial refereeing to qualify texts for publication.

Peer review quality and selectivity standards vary greatly from journal to journal, publisher to publisher, and field to field.

A trademark, trade mark, or trade-mark is a recognizable sign, design, or expression which identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others, although trademarks used to identify services are usually called service marks.

The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity.

A trademark may be located on a package, a label, a voucher, or on the product itself.

For the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings.